Hawking's black hole theorem confirmed by gravitational waves

A black hole has often been portrayed as the ultimate villain in sci-fi movies due to its mysterious nature. From the death of a large-enough star it emerges with such a strong gravitational field that not even light can escape from within its grasp.

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However, in spite of its wildly mysterious behavior, the black hole obeys certain simple rules. One of those rules, first proposed in 1971 by English physicist Stephen Hawking, has been proven correct by the help of gravitational waves.

The area law, derived from Einstein's general relativity, states that it is impossible for a black hole to decrease in size, at least in the short term. Mathematically:

Recently, a team led by astrophysicist Maximiliano Isi from Massachusetts Institute of Technology studied the gravitational wave data released by the merger of two black holes.

Their calculations show that the total surface area of the resulting black hole is greater than the combined areas of the two smaller black holes. Therefore, Stephen Hawking was right.

However, while black holes cannot shrink according to Einstein's general relativity, they can do so as per the quantum mechanics.

Hawking worked that out too in 1974 – a concept known as Hawking radiation, which is predicted to emit because of strange quantum effects near the black hole's event horizon.

In his 1988 book A Brief History of Time, Hawking thus wrote: Black holes ain't so black. The release of these radiations would cause the black hole to shrink over longer time period and evaporate eventually.

Hence, theoretically speaking, both general relativity and quantum mechanics hold true. Maximiliano Isi said: "I am obsessed with these objects because of how paradoxical they are."

Now that the area law has been established for short to medium time frames, the researchers' next step would be to detect Hawking radiation by observing older black holes; no substantial evidence has been recorded so far.

Isi concludes: Black holes are those phenomena where gravity meets quantum mechanics, which makes them the perfect playgrounds for our understanding of reality.

10 TV Shows That Physics Students Will Enjoy

While there are several movies and documentaries that appeal mainly to science students, there are not a whole lot of TV shows that a science lover can truly enjoy. Thus, here is a list of tried and tested TV shows that physics students will find interesting.

1. Steins; Gate

If you are into science of time travel, then this show is for you. (Plus, there is a lot of action as well.) In the anime, 11 possible theories of time travel have been touched upon - since one of the protagonists is a theoretical physicist.

The show has also made use of grandfather paradox, multiverse theory and separate timelines. You will be intrigued right from the beginning due to eccentricities of the main character - the show is brilliant in every manner possible.

2. Big Bang Theory

Of course, this is a well known comedy show in which three physicists and an engineer grapple with the complexities of life - especially upon the entry of a girl in their lives.

There will be occasional quizzes, cosplays - such as Sheldon dressing up as Doppler Effect - demonstrations and explanations - like Leonard explaining centripetal force.

Many renowned celebrities such as Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk, Neil deGrasse Tyson and Steve Wozniak have acted in the show. In fact, Hawking made multiple appearances.

So, overall, it is a fun show for every science student. The first four seasons especially keep the scientific aspect of the show intact. You can watch it on Amazon Prime.

3. Star Trek

In Star Trek, we follow the adventures of a space crew whose mission is to explore strange new worlds in the galaxy - as a mater of fact in the entire universe - to be honest. It is a show loved especially by physicists and astronauts.

So much so that physicist Lawrence M. Krauss wrote a book titled: Physics of star trek based upon the series. In one episode of The Next Generation Newton, Einstein and Hawking are filmed playing poker with Data.

Many technological marvels such as matter-antimatter generation, transporter, androids, cloaking devices, etc. have been mentioned and made use of in the show. You can catch it on Amazon Prime.

4. Doctor Who

Time travel is just one of the many themes which are included in Doctor Who. The show has pulse-pounding action that will put you on the edge of your seat, but it also makes you think, such as on the nature of reality, consciousness, etc.

In 2014, physicist Brian Cox hosted a lecture on the science of Doctor Who. Biologist Richard Dawkins made an appearance in one episode. Its eminent writers include Russell T Davies, Steven Moffat and Neil Gaiman.

The show's protagonist frequents between the past and the future. Thus, stories of various historical figures such as William Shakespeare, Ada Lovelace, Rosa Parks, Charles Babbage, Vincent Van Gogh, etc. have been covered in the show.

As far as tomorrow is concerned, writers have shown dystopian future on many occasions and technologically superior space faring human civilization as well.

Apart from science and science fiction the show has also ventured into supernatural, horror and thriller genre. This makes Doctor Who the most versatile science show of all time. You can watch it on Amazon Prime.

5. Young Sheldon

If you're a budding scientist who enjoys family comedies then Young Sheldon on Amazon Prime is for you. As the title suggests the show is based on stories from Sheldon Cooper's childhood. Its themes include science, education, adolescence, family and religion.

6. Dr. Stone

This show is set in post-apocalyptic Earth when humankind has lost most of its technology and resources to Stone. Our genius protagonist is on a mission to redevelop items of everyday use. So it's like watching Bear Grylls in Man VS Wild except that it's Bill Nye in place of Bear Grylls.

7. Black Mirror

It is a dystopian science fiction show in which we delve into the relationship between science, society and technology; that how technology has reduced our freedom, diminished our privacy, etc. If you are accepting of dark humor, satire and dystopia then this is for you.

8. Rick and Morty

This is animated TV show in which we follow the adventures of mad scientist Rick Sanchez and his grandson Morty Smith. The main characters and themes of the show seem to be inspired by Back to the future and Doctor who respectively.

Stories revolve around various scientific topics such as multiverse theory, alien life, mind bending parasites, robots, etc. while also taking into account philosophies such as cosmicism and nihilism.

9. Battlestar Galactica

This action packed show is based upon the bittersweet relationship between humans and artificial intelligence. What does it mean to be human? Its main theme is that, along with a desperate search for home planet - such as Earth - because humans are on the run for their lives after losing war against the great warrior robots, Cylons.

10. The Expanse

Real world science sets this science fiction apart from all the rest. The showrunner Naren Shankar was once an engineer by profession; he also has a PhD. Like all Indians deciding not to be an engineer anymore he then ventured into writing.

The Expanse which you can watch on Amazon Prime is a beautiful combination of space engineering and fiction. It has some of the best physics-based spaceflight and combat and an engaging story as well, according to one viewer.

Role of Richard Feynman's Father In Shaping His Life

When Richard Feynman was asked in an interview whether anybody could become a physicist like him, he candidly replied: Of course. I was an ordinary person who studied hard. There are no miracle people.

While that may be true, it was Feynman's parents who played the most important roles in giving his life and character shape. While from his father Richard learned to challenge orthodox thinking; from his mother he gained a unique sense of humor.

Richard was born on May 11, 1918 in New York city to Lucille Phillips, a teacher turned homemaker and Melville Feynman, a military uniform salesman who was an immigrant from Minsk, then part of the Russian Empire.

Melville, who never himself had the opportunity to make a career in science, encouraged both his son and daughter Joan (nine years younger than Richard) to take up science. She went on to become a distinguished astrophysicist herself.

Feynman also became famous for his work on quantum electrodynamics which earned him the 1965 Nobel Prize. In an interview thereafter, he revealed: My father taught me very early the difference between knowing and understanding.

Feynman explained: When I was a small boy, my father used to sit me on his lap and read to me from encyclopedia Britannica, say about the dinosaurs.

That this thing was 25 feet tall and its head was 6 feet across and so on. 'But he would stop always', Feynman recalled. 'What does that even mean?'

'Suppose the dinosaur stood in our front yard, then it would be high enough to put its head through the window - but not quite - because the head would be too wide and it would probably break the window apart.'

That is how Melville translated every numerical fact into pictures, into reality and Richard thus started to grow an unbound sense of imagination from an early age, thanks to his father.

Apart from that, Feynman's modesty was also a gift from his father. When questioned, if his work was worthy of a Nobel Prize, he said: I don’t like honors, honors is epaulettes, honors is uniforms. My papa brought me up this way. I can’t stand it, honors bother me.

For him, the true honor was in the observation that other people used his work and derived inspiration from it. Those are the real things, Richard added.

Melville died suddenly on October 8, 1946 around the same time when Arline, Feynman's first wife had passed away. Richard suffered from depression as a result and could not continue doing physics for some time. It was too deep a sorrow.

In the end, what did Feynman gain most from his father? One can say, his childlike curiosity that he maintained throughout his life. But more importantly the bond that they shared was more that of a loving teacher and a student. Feynman learned from his dad how to think, not what to think. His father was his first teacher and friend.

10 Nobel Prize Winning Families In Science

The Nobel Prize is the most prestigious award given for intellectual achievement in the world. While there have been several controversial snubs, few have also gone on to win multiple prizes. This, is a list of 10 famous Nobel laureate families of the world.

Curie family

You may already know that Marie Curie and Pierre Curie have jointly won the Nobel Prize in physics. Their daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie received the Prize in chemistry, sharing it with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie.

Marie Curie was awarded one more Prize for work done in chemistry thus taking their family total to five Nobel Prizes.

Niels and Aage Bohr

This father and son duo has won the Nobel Prize for physics in 1922 and 1975 respectively. Niels Bohr was awarded for his services in the investigation of atomic structure and Aage Bohr won for describing the structure of atomic nucleus.

Raman and beyond

In 1930, C.V. Raman became India's first Nobel laureate in physics. His nephew Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was awarded in 1983 for explaining the evolution of stars. In 2009, another Tamilian Venki Ramakrishnan won the Prize only this time in chemistry.

Thomson family

J.J. Thomson got the 1906 Nobel Prize in physics for his discovery of electron, the first subatomic particle to be found. His son, George Paget Thomson was recognized by the Nobel Committee in 1937 for showing that electron behaved like a wave.

Arthur and Roger Kornberg

Roger was only 12 years old when he saw his father Arthur Kornberg receive the most coveted Prize in 1959. Then, 47 years later, Roger won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for explaining how information is copied from DNA to RNA.

Euler family

Hans von Euler-Chelpin, distantly related to mathematician Leonhard Euler, was a biochemist who won the 1929 Nobel Prize in chemistry. His son Ulf von Euler was a physiologist who won the Prize in medicine for work done on neurotransmitters.

Manne and Kai Siegbahn

This father and son duo was an expert on spectroscopy. Manne Siegbahn won the Nobel Prize in physics for pioneering work done in x-ray spectroscopy. Whereas his son Kai Siegbahn won the same Prize for developing a new method of electron spectroscopy.

Bragg family

William and Lawrence Bragg were jointly awarded the 1915 Nobel Prize for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of x-rays. Lawrence is thus far the youngest ever laureate in physics. The father-son duo also have a crystal named after them – Braggite.

May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser

The Curies are not the only couples that have won the Nobel Prize. In 2014, Edvard Moser and May-Britt Moser received the Prize in medicine for the discovery of grid cells. These are neurons which provide a coordinate system to the brain and thus help an animal navigate in space.

Carl Ferdinand and Gerty Cori

Another Nobel Prize winning couple: Gerti Corie was the third woman to win a Nobel Prize in science. The biochemist duo shared the 1947 Prize in medicine for their discovery of glycogen.

Maxwell, Great Physicist Who Died Too Soon

James Clerk Maxwell was a renowned Scottish mathematician who built upon the works of English scientist Michael Faraday and revolutionized physics in whatever little time he spent on Earth.

His most important contribution was the unification of electricity, magnetism and optics into one coherent body of knowledge. Maxwell's research paved the way for technologies like radio, television, mobile phones and infrared telescopes.

Einstein said of Maxwell: The special theory of relativity owes its origins to Maxwell's Equations of the electromagnetic field. Planck added: He achieved greatness unequalled.

Early genius

When Maxwell was 13 years old, he won the Mathematics Medal and the first prize in both English and poetry. Following is one of his short poems:

The world may be utterly crazy

And life may be labour in vain;

But I'd rather be silly than lazy,

And would not quit life for its pain.

He published his first scientific paper at 14. The paper was written on a series of oval curves that could be traced with pins and threads, showing his love for geometry.

Professorship

When he was 24, Maxwell used to set up examination papers for Trinity College. A year later, he became a professor of natural philosophy at Aberdeen University aged 25. Maxwell was at least 15 years younger than his colleagues.

There he studied the nature of Saturn’s rings for almost two years and compiled his observations in a detailed essay, titled: The Stability of Saturn’s Rings.

When Voyager spacecrafts went to space in the 1980s, they confirmed many of the conclusions that Maxwell had made over a century before.

Electromagnetism

Maxwell joined King's College, London in 1860. Here he forayed into works published by Faraday and also met him on several occasions. Michael Faraday, who was 40 years older than Maxwell, became an admirer.

Maxwell examined the behavior of electric and magnetic fields in his 1861 paper: 'On physical lines of force'. In 1862, while giving a lecture, he calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is same as the speed of light.

Thus, he went on to conclude that light is itself an electromagnetic disturbance which propagates through the space according to electromagnetic laws.

Last years

Maxwell resigned in 1865 and returned to his home in Scotland. He also frequented to Cambridge where he was supervising the construction of Cavendish Laboratory.

In 1871, aged 40, he was elected the first Cavendish Professor of Physics. Here he wrote three popular books called Theory of Heat, Matter and Motion and A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism.

His famous twenty equations, which in their modern form are four partial differential equations, known as Maxwell's equations, first appeared in 1873.

In 1879, Maxwell reported difficulty in swallowing food. It was found that he had abdominal cancer, to which he succumbed the same year, at the age of 48.

Legacy

In 1884, five years after Maxwell's death, Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist successfully produced electromagnetic waves in a laboratory as predicted by Maxwell.

Physicists say that Maxwell achieved for light what Newton had achieved for gravity: Unification. It took Maxwell's genius to collect the laws from the scattered pile of experimental evidence then at hand.

American physicist Richard Feynman wrote: Maxwell's equations didn't just change the world. They opened up a new one. Feynman labeled it the 'most significant discovery' of the 19th century.

Today, world's largest single-dish telescope that operates in submillimeter wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum is called James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in his honor.

5 LGBTQ scientists who changed the world

According to a study, 40% LGBTQ scientists remain closeted at work. While we don't think this post will drastically change the mindset but it will hopefully serve as a conversation starter. Here is a list of LGBTQ scientists who changed the world.

Alan Turing

He was a British mathematician who is well known as the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.

His pivotal role in the second world war was documented in award winning movie The Imitation Game which starred Benedict Cumberbatch.

Turing was arrested by the police because of his homosexuality in 1952. He chose chemical castration over going to prison to focus on his work. However, he went into depression soon after.

Turing committed suicide in 1954 by eating an apple laced with Cyanide. It is said that the logo of Apple computers is a homage to Turing.

In 1999, Time magazine named Alan Turing as one of the 100 most important people of the twentieth century. Later on, an official apology by the British government was also made.

Isaac Newton

In 2005, schools across UK included lessons on modern as well as historical gay icons such as Freddie Mercury and Isaac Newton respectively.

While many biographers, including Richard Westfall in his 1000 page account of Newton, argue that Newton was homosexually inclined (focusing particularly on his close relationship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier) others are not so keen.

Still, people find it rather odd that a figure as popular as Newton may have died a virgin.

When asked to answer on Newton's personal life, a Quora user jokingly commented: Newton was closeted of course, as men of his time had to be. But he gave a big hint by shining a rainbow for all to see.

Leonardo Da Vinci

Renaissance society did not have the idea of firm sexual orientation that prevails today and many men were in practice bisexual.

According to Walter Isaacson's biography, Leonardo Da Vinci lived life as an openly gay man and while that is the generally accepted position, some say that the artist and inventor was celibate.

The only written evidence, so far as his personal life is concerned, is a 1476 document in which Leonardo was charged with sodomy involving a well-known male prostitute.

Since that date, much has been speculated and written about his presumed homosexuality and especially its role in his art.

Francis Bacon

He is known as father of modern science thanks to his invention of an empirical method of doing science which is called the scientific method. Historical notes, such as letters exchanged between Bacon's mother and brother, have shown that he was primarily attracted to men.

Sally Ride

She was an American astronaut and physicist who became the first American woman to go to space. Ride was only 32 years old at the time of this achievement and remains the youngest American to have been to space.

She was in a private relationship with former Tennis player and science writer Tam O'Shaughnessy. They were together for 27 years until Ride's death due to pancreatic cancer.

Which Books Richard Feynman Studied From?

We all know Richard Feynman as a Nobel Prize winner and a beloved teacher whose lectures on physics are enjoyed by millions of people. It would be interesting to know how Feynman became so imaginative and curious about the world. How did Feynman learn physics and mathematics? Let's find out in this post.

When asked in an interview, if anybody could become a physicist like him, Feynman candidly replied: "Of course. I was an ordinary person who studied hard. There are no miracle people. It just happens. They got interested in this thing and they learned all this stuff."

The young Richard Feynman was largely influenced by his father, Melville Feynman, who encouraged his son to ask questions and challenge orthodox thinking. Melville was a sales manager but he always wanted to become a scientist himself.

Feynman recalled: "The most important thing I found out from my father is that if you asked any question and pursued it deeply enough, then at the end there was a glorious discovery of a general and beautiful kind."

Feynman also learned from his father the difference between knowing and understanding. For instance, you can know the name of a bird in all the languages of the world, but when you're finished, you'll know absolutely nothing whatever about the bird.

Feynman goes on to comment: "I don't know what is the matter with people: they don't learn by understanding; they learn by some other way – by rote or something. Their knowledge is so fragile."

When Feynman found a subject which interested him, he was not the kind to wait for the right teacher to come along; Feynman was determined to master the topic by himself. This is how he practiced early on the art of teaching.

For example, Feynman self-studied calculus at the age of 14 by reading Calculus for the practical man. This and other books written by James Edgar Thompson, such as Algebra for the practical man intrigued him.

Table of contents. Picture credit: Melinda Baldwin

Feynman's notes were quite extensive, less wordy and more visual in nature. This habit of taking notes helped in revision. Feynman would use drawings to simplify a difficult concept, which helped him win a Nobel prize later on.

While Julian Schwinger's formulation of quantum electrodynamics was mathematically superior and far more complex to work with; Feynman's drawing approach, on the other hand, broke the whole thing down into simpler diagrams.

Feynman studied really very hard in his Caltech years too. Before giving a lecture, he would prepare late into the night. Feynman's strategy was: To study in the most undisciplined, irreverent, and original manner possible.

In other words, Feynman's ability to consume knowledge was phenomenal. He would teach it to himself and in the process discover tricks and tips to succeed in maths and physics. Thus, in short, his two secrets to success in academics: Self-learning and teaching.

Feynman was a life-long learner and no matter how long it would take him to learn on his own, he would never give up or lose hope and stayed focused till the problem at hand was resolved.

Einstein's letter sold for $1.2 million at auction

Set up at a base price of $400,000, the letter containing Einstein's most well known formula has sold for $1.2 million at an auction conducted by RR Auction.

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The letter is said to be one of the three written records of Einstein's famous equation. It was sent to Polish-American physicist Ludwik Silberstein in 1946.

In this equation, energy is equal to mass, multiplied by the square of the velocity of light. It shows that very small amounts of mass may be converted into a very large amount of energy and vice versa.

For example: In an atomic bomb, uranium is transformed into krypton and barium. Their combined mass is slightly less than the mass of the original uranium. Though the difference is small, by virtue of speed of light, the energy which is released is enormous.

During the Second World War, Einstein feared that Germans might develop an atomic weapon based upon his groundbreaking discovery.

So, despite being a long-time pacifist, Einstein wrote a letter to Franklin Roosevelt, the then President of the United States, to urge him to develop the atomic bomb before the Germans.

Thus, today, the equation is dear to not only physicists but also to history lovers. Auction of the letter began on 13 May and its rarity set off a bidding war among five parties.

Sold for more than $1.2 million, the letter has garnered about three times more money than it was expected to get.

Who discovered that we are made from star stuff?

Astronomer Carl Sagan popularized the phrase "We are made of star stuff" when he said: Nitrogen in our DNA, calcium in our teeth, iron in our blood and carbon in our food; were made in the interiors of collapsing stars.

However, most people wouldn't know the name of that scientist who actually found it out. It was German American physicist Hans Bethe (1906-2005) who wrote it in a paper titled "Energy Production in Stars" as early as in 1939.

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In 1930s, at the time when European scientists were debating quantum mechanics, Bethe migrated to United States and contemplated the stars. He thus became the first person to figure out that conversion of hydrogen into helium was the primary source of energy in a star.

The process is called nuclear fusion in which many nuclei combine together to make a larger one. It so happens that the resultant nucleus is smaller in mass than the sum of the ones that made it. So, by virtue of Einstein's equation E=mc², the mass is converted to energy.

When a star would eventually run out of hydrogen (its primary fuel) it would start converting helium into carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and so on, in order to keep itself hot.

However, those reactions themselves will halt at some point and the star would no longer be able to support itself against its own gravity and it will die in an explosion.

Therefore, it was proposed that most of the material that we're made from, came out of the dead stars which spewed out those chemical elements into the universe for further use. Hence, we are made of star stuff.

Bethe's groundbreaking paper not only helped in understanding the inner workings of the stars but also solved the age-old questions like: 'How do stars shine?' 'Where did the chemical elements come from?'

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He won the 1967 Nobel Prize in physics for this theory of stellar nucleosynthesis. Bethe would continue to do research on supernovae, neutron stars, black holes and other problems of astrophysics well into his late nineties.

Carl Sagan and Hans Bethe share the stage at Cornell

Now, Carl Sagan, who was earlier at Harvard University, joined Cornell in 1976 and became immediate colleagues with Hans Bethe who had been at Cornell since coming to America in 1935. While Bethe was a professor of physics, Sagan was a professor of Astronomy.

It was unfortunate that the general public still did not know about stellar nucleosynthesis despite Bethe discovering it some 40 years ago and winning the highest prize for it a decade ago. Carl Sagan changed this.

Their common interests in science and politics brought them even closer. Bethe was also a fan of Sagan's 1980 show Cosmos: A personal voyage. In one of the episodes, when Sagan said "We are made of star stuff", he immortalized Bethe's work in television history.